Comparative Life Cycle Assessment of a Pre-Commercial Chemical Recycling Process for Post-Industrial Plastic Waste

Darius Steegborn; Manfred Renner; Philip Biessey

doi:10.55845/jos-2025-1270

Authors

Darius Steegborn Ruhr University Bochum
Manfred Renner Ruhr University Bochum
Philip Biessey Ruhr University Bochum

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.55845/jos-2025-1270

Keywords:

Chemical Recycling, Life Cycle Assessment, Pyrolysis, Plastic Waste Utilisation

Abstract

Chemical recycling technologies are gaining attention, yet their environmental benefits remain debated due to high energy demand, low yields, and limited data quality. This study conducts a comparative life cycle assessment of a 130 kg/h pyrolysis plant converting post-industrial packaging waste into high-value chemicals. Its environmental performance is benchmarked against waste incineration and virgin chemical production. The chemical recycling process emits 1.4 kg_CO2-eq/kg feedstock, 50 % lower than for incineration. Considering product substitutions, emissions of the recycling process are reduced up to ‑0.9 kg_CO2-eq. Compared to virgin production, the chemical recycling process provides a suitable alternative, generating up to 40 % less CO₂ emissions. It also results in lower impacts on acidification and fossil fuel depletion, although freshwater and marine eutrophication are higher than those of fossil-based production. The results show high dependency on data and methodological assumptions that can reduce the emissions by up to 64 % but can increase them by 114 %.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

References

Almohamadi, H., Alamoudi, M., Ahmed, U., Shamsuddin, R., & Smith, K. (2021). Producing hydrocarbon fuel from the plastic waste: Techno-economic analysis. Korean Journal of Chemical Engineering, 38(11), 2208–2216. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11814-021-0876-3

Antelava, A., Damilos, S., Hafeez, S., Manos, G., Al-Salem, S. M., Sharma, B. K., Kohli, K., & Constantinou, A. (2019). Plastic Solid Waste (PSW) in the Context of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and Sustainable Management. Environmental Management, 64(2), 230–244. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-019-01178-3

Ardolino, F., Palladini, A., & Arena, U. (2023). Social life cycle assessment of innovative management schemes for challenging plastics waste. Sustainable Production and Consumption, 37, 344–355. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spc.2023.03.011

Awino, F. B., & Apitz, S. E. (2024). Solid waste management in the context of the waste hierarchy and circular economy frameworks: An international critical review. Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management, 20(1), 9–35. https://doi.org/10.1002/ieam.4774

Biessey, P., Vogel, J., Seitz, M., & Quicker, P. (2023). Plastic Waste Utilization via Chemical Recycling: Approaches, Limitations, and the Challenges Ahead. Chemie Ingenieur Technik, 95(8), 1199–1214. https://doi.org/10.1002/cite.202300042

Boie, W. (1957). Vom Brennstoff zum Rauchgas: Feuerungstechnisches Rechnen mit Brennstoffkenngrössen und seine Vereinfachung mit Mitteln der Statistik. Teubner.

BusinessAnalytiq. (2025a). Caprolactam price index. https://businessanalytiq.com/procurementanalytics/index/caprolactam-price-index/ (accessed 03.11.2025)

BusinessAnalytiq. (2025b). Naphtha price index. https://businessanalytiq.com/procurementanalytics/index/naphtha-price-index/ (accessed 03.11.2025)

Carbon Minds. (2024). https://www.carbon-minds.com/products/data/.

Chari, S., Paulillo, A., & Materazzi, M. (2025). Exploring the potential of chemical recycling using a distributed model in the UK - A life cycle assessment perspective. Waste Management (New York, N.Y.), 199, 13–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2025.02.052

Chaudhari, U. S., Johnson, A. T., Reck, B. K., Handler, R. M., Thompson, V. S., Hartley, D. S., Young, W., Watkins, D., & Shonnard, D. (2022). Material Flow Analysis and Life Cycle Assessment of Polyethylene Terephthalate and Polyolefin Plastics Supply Chains in the United States. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, 10(39), 13145–13155. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.2c04004

Civancik-Uslu, D., Nhu, T. T., van Gorp, B., Kresovic, U., Larrain, M., Billen, P., Ragaert, K., Meester, S. de, Dewulf, J., & Huysveld, S. (2021). Moving from linear to circular household plastic packaging in Belgium: Prospective life cycle assessment of mechanical and thermochemical recycling. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 171, 105633. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2021.105633

Da Monteiro, A. R. D., Miranda, D. M. V. de, Da Silva Pinto, J. C. C., & Soto, J. J. (2022). Life Cycle Assessment of the Catalytic Pyrolysis of High‐Density Polyethylene (HDPE) and High‐Impact Polystyrene (HIPS). Macromolecular Reaction Engineering, 16(6), Article 2200037. https://doi.org/10.1002/mren.202200037

Dai, L., Zhou, N., Lv, Y., Cheng, Y., Wang, Y., Liu, Y., Cobb, K., Chen, P., Lei, H., & Ruan, R. (2022). Pyrolysis technology for plastic waste recycling: A state-of-the-art review. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, 93, 101021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pecs.2022.101021

Das, S., Liang, C., & Dunn, J. B. (2022). Plastics to fuel or plastics: Life cycle assessment-based evaluation of different options for pyrolysis at end-of-life. Waste Management (Oxford, United Kingdom), 153, 81–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2022.08.015

Davidson, M. G., Furlong, R. A., & McManus, M. C. (2021). Developments in the life cycle assessment of chemical recycling of plastic waste – A review. Journal of Cleaner Production, 293, 126163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.126163

Dębek, C., & Walendziewski, J. (2015). Hydrorefining of oil from pyrolysis of whole tyres for passenger cars and vans. Fuel, 159, 659–665. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2015.07.024

Djandja, O. S., Wang, Z., Duan, P., Wang, F., & Xu, Y. (2021). Hydrotreatment of pyrolysis oil from waste tire in tetralin for production of high-quality hydrocarbon rich fuel. Fuel, 285, 119185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2020.119185

Doka, G. (2013). Updates to Life Cycle Inventories of Waste Treatment Services: Part II "Waste incineration".

Domo Chemicals GmbH. (2022). Sicherheitsdatenblatt Caprolactam: Inklusive Spezifikationen.

ecoinvent. (2022). ecoinvent database v3.9.1.

Egli, S. (2005). Anleitung mit Checkliste zur Energieoptimierung von Kehrichtverbrennungsanlagen: Schlussbericht.

Ellen MacArthur Foundation. (2017). The new plastics economy: catalysing action.

Erakca, M., Baumann, M., Helbig, C., & Weil, M. (2024). Systematic review of scale-up methods for prospective life cycle assessment of emerging technologies. Journal of Cleaner Production, 451, 142161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2024.142161

European Commission. (2019). The European Green Deal: communication from the commission to the european parliament, the european council, the council, the european economic and social committee and the committee of the regions.

Faisal, F., Rasul, M. G., & Jahirul, M. I. (2023). Upgrading MSW pyrolysis oil through distillation and hydrotreatment for automobile engine applications: A short review. Energy Reports, 9, 555–560. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2023.12.008

Fibrant. (2024). Product Data Sheet - EcoLactam® AP Quality liquid.

Gabrielli, P., Rosa, L., Gazzani, M., Meys, R., Bardow, A., Mazzotti, M., & Sansavini, G. (2023). Net-zero emissions chemical industry in a world of limited resources. One Earth, 6(6), 682–704. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2023.05.006

Garcia-Garcia, G., Martín-Lara, M. Á., Calero, M., & Blázquez, G. (2024). Environmental impact of different scenarios for the pyrolysis of contaminated mixed plastic waste. Green Chemistry, 26(7), 3853–3862. https://doi.org/10.1039/D3GC04396G

Gargiulo, V., Alfe, M., Ruoppolo, G., Cammarota, F., Rossi, C. O., Loise, V., Porto, M., Calandra, P., Pochylski, M., Gapinski, J., & Caputo, P. (2023). How char from waste pyrolysis can improve bitumen characteristics and induce anti-aging effects. Colloids and Surfaces a: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 676, 132199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfa.2023.132199

Genuino, H. C., Pilar Ruiz, M., Heeres, H. J., & Kersten, S. R. A. (2023). Pyrolysis of mixed plastic waste: Predicting the product yields. Waste Management (Oxford, United Kingdom), 156, 208–215. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2022.11.040

GESTIS-Stoffdatenbank. (2024a). Characterisation of diesel fuel. https://gestis.dguv.de/data?name=536303&lang=en

GESTIS-Stoffdatenbank. (2024b). Characterisation of naphtha; Low boiling point naphtha. https://gestis.dguv.de/data?name=035130&lang=en

Geyer, R. (2020). Production, use, and fate of synthetic polymers. In Plastic Waste and Recycling (pp. 13–32). https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-817880-5.00002-5

Gutierrez-Lopez, J., McGarvey, R. G., Noble, J. S., Hall, D. M., & Costello, C. (2024). Quantification of social metrics for use in optimization: An application to solid waste management. Journal of Cleaner Production, 480, 144111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2024.144111

Hermanns, R., Kraft, A., Hartmann, P., & Meys, R. (2023). Comparative Life Cycle Assessment of Pyrolysis – Recycling Germany's Sorted Mixed Plastic Waste. Chemie Ingenieur Technik, 95(8), 1259–1267. https://doi.org/10.1002/cite.202300041

Hita, I., Gutiérrez, A., Olazar, M., Bilbao, J., Arandes, J. M., & Castaño, P. (2015). Upgrading model compounds and Scrap Tires Pyrolysis Oil (STPO) on hydrotreating NiMo catalysts with tailored supports. Fuel, 145, 158–169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2014.12.055

Holtkamp, M., Renner, M., Matthiesen, K., Wald, M., Luinstra, G. A., & Biessey, P. (2024). Robust downstream technologies in polystyrene waste pyrolysis: Design and prospective life-cycle assessment of pyrolysis oil reintegration pathways. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 205, 107558. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2024.107558

Hong, J., & Xu, X. (2012). Environmental impact assessment of caprolactam production – a case study in China. Journal of Cleaner Production, 27, 103–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2011.12.037

Hugo Fuchs, L. (1994). PURIFICATION OF CAPROLACTAM(5,350,847).

Icha, P., & Lauf, T. (2024). Entwicklung der spezifischen Treibhausgas-Emissionen des deutschen Strommix in den Jahren 1990 - 2023.

Iribarren, D., Dufour, J., & Serrano, D. P. (2012). Preliminary assessment of plastic waste valorization via sequential pyrolysis and catalytic reforming. Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management, 14(4), 301–307. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10163-012-0069-6

ISO. (2006a). DIN ISO EN 14040:2006 Environmental management – Life cycle assessment – Principles and framework: German version.

ISO. (2006b). DIN ISO EN 14044:2006 Environmental management – Life cycle assessment – Requirements and guidelines: German version.

Jeswani, H., Krüger, C., Russ, M., Horlacher, M., Antony, F., Hann, S., & Azapagic, A. (2021). Life cycle environmental impacts of chemical recycling via pyrolysis of mixed plastic waste in comparison with mechanical recycling and energy recovery. Science of the Total Environment, 769, 144483. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.144483

Kleijne, K. de, Huijbregts, M. A. J., Knobloch, F., van Zelm, R., Hilbers, J. P., Coninck, H. de, & Hanssen, S. V. (2024). Worldwide greenhouse gas emissions of green hydrogen production and transport. Nature Energy. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41560-024-01563-1

Klotz, M., Oberschelp, C., Salah, C., Subal, L., & Hellweg, S. (2024). The role of chemical and solvent-based recycling within a sustainable circular economy for plastics. The Science of the Total Environment, 906, 167586. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.167586

Kulas, D. G., Zolghadr, A., Chaudhari, U. S., & Shonnard, D. R. (2023). Economic and environmental analysis of plastics pyrolysis after secondary sortation of mixed plastic waste. Journal of Cleaner Production, 384, 135542. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.135542

Kusenberg, M., Langhe, S. de, Parvizi, B., Abdulrahman, A. J., Varghese, R. J., Aravindakshan, S. U., Kurkijärvi, A., Gandarillas, A. M., Jamieson, J., Meester, S. de, & van Geem, K. M. (2024). Characterization and impact of oxygenates in post-consumer plastic waste-derived pyrolysis oils on steam cracking process efficiency. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 181, 106571. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2024.106571

Kusenberg, M., Zayoud, A., Roosen, M., Thi, H. D., Abbas-Abadi, M. S., Eschenbacher, A., Kresovic, U., Meester, S. de, & van Geem, K. M. (2022). A comprehensive experimental investigation of plastic waste pyrolysis oil quality and its dependence on the plastic waste composition. Fuel Processing Technology, 227, 107090. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2021.107090

Lase, I. S., Tonini, D., Caro, D., Albizzati, P. F., Cristóbal, J., Roosen, M., Kusenberg, M., Ragaert, K., van Geem, K. M., Dewulf, J., & Meester, S. de (2023). How much can chemical recycling contribute to plastic waste recycling in Europe? An assessment using material flow analysis modeling. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 192, 106916. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2023.106916

Lau, W. W. Y., Shiran, Y., Bailey, R. M., Cook, E., Stuchtey, M. R., Koskella, J., Velis, C. A., Godfrey, L., Boucher, J., Murphy, M. B., Thompson, R. C., Jankowska, E., Castillo Castillo, A., Pilditch, T. D., Dixon, B., Koerselman, L., Kosior, E., Favoino, E., Gutberlet, J., . . . Palardy, J. E. (2020). Evaluating scenarios toward zero plastic pollution. Science (Washington, DC, United States), 369(6510), 1455–1461. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aba9475

Lechleitner, A., Schwabl, D., Schubert, T., Bauer, M., & Lehner, M. (2020). Chemisches Recycling von gemischten Kunststoffabfällen als ergänzender Recyclingpfad zur Erhöhung der Recyclingquote. Oesterreichische Wasser- Und Abfallwirtschaft, 72(1-2), 47–60. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00506-019-00628-w

Losier, T. P. (1995). Process for the purification of crude caprolactam(0 670 307 A2).

Mallapragada, D. S., Dvorkin, Y., Modestino, M. A., Esposito, D. V., Smith, W. A., Hodge, B.‑M., Harold, M. P., Donnelly, V. M., Nuz, A., Bloomquist, C., Baker, K., Grabow, L. C., Yan, Y., Rajput, N. N., Hartman, R. L., Biddinger, E. J., Aydil, E. S., & Taylor, A. D. (2023). Decarbonization of the chemical industry through electrification: Barriers and opportunities. Joule, 7(1), 23–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2022.12.008

Maniscalco, M. P., Longo, S., Cellura, M., Miccichè, G., & Ferraro, M. (2024). Critical Review of Life Cycle Assessment of Hydrogen Production Pathways. Environments, 11(6), 108. https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11060108

Merkel, A., Plessing, L., Luinstra, G. A., Grünewald, M., & Biessey, P. (2023). Development of a separation sequence for the integration of a styrene recyclate into polystyrene production. Chemie Ingenieur Technik, 95(8), 1323–1331. https://doi.org/10.1002/cite.202100210

Meys, R., Frick, F., Westhues, S., Sternberg, A., Klankermayer, J., & Bardow, A. (2020). Towards a circular economy for plastic packaging wastes – the environmental potential of chemical recycling. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 162, 105010. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2020.105010

Meys, R., Kätelhön, A., Bachmann, M., Winter, B., Zibunas, C., Suh, S., & Bardow, A. (2021). Achieving net-zero greenhouse gas emission plastics by a circular carbon economy. Science (Washington, DC, United States), 374(6563), 71–76. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abg9853

Moni, S. M., Mahmud, R., High, K., & Carbajales‐Dale, M. (2020). Life cycle assessment of emerging technologies: A review. Journal of Industrial Ecology, 24(1), 52–63. https://doi.org/10.1111/jiec.12965

OECD. (2022). Global Plastics Outlook: Economic Drivers, Environmental Impacts and Policy Options. OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/de747aef-en

Pires Costa, L., Vaz de Miranda, D. M., & Pinto, J. C. (2022). Critical Evaluation of Life Cycle Assessment Analyses of Plastic Waste Pyrolysis. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, 10(12), 3799–3807. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.2c00265

Plastics Europe. (2022a). "Plastics - The Facts 2022".

Plastics Europe. (2022b). Eco-profiles program and methodology: Version 3.1. https://plasticseurope.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/PlasticsEurope-Ecoprofiles-program-and-methodology_V3.1.pdf?utm_source=chatgpt.com

Ragaert, K., Delva, L., & van Geem, K. (2017). Mechanical and chemical recycling of solid plastic waste. Waste Management (Oxford, United Kingdom), 69, 24–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2017.07.044

Santos, A., Barbosa-Póvoa, A., & Carvalho, A. (2019). Life cycle assessment in chemical industry – a review. Current Opinion in Chemical Engineering, 26, 139–147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coche.2019.09.009

Schwartz, E., He, H., Ogunseitan, O. A., & Schoenung, J. M. (2025). Phenol production from pyrolysis of waste printed circuit boards: life cycle and techno-economic assessment. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 215, 108019. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2024.108019

Snowden-Swan, L. J., Spies, K. A., Lee, G. J., & Zhu, Y. (2016). Life cycle greenhouse gas emissions analysis of catalysts for hydrotreating of fast pyrolysis bio-oil. Biomass and Bioenergy, 86, 136–145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2016.01.019

Sphera. (2025). Guidelines for LCA in Chemical Recycling: v1.0. Prepared for Chemical Recycling Europe. Available at: https://chemicalrecyclingeurope.eu/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/CRE-LCA-Guideline-Final-Clean-signed-1.pdf

Tinge, J., Groothaert, M., op het Veld, H., Ritz, J., Fuchs, H., Kieczka, H., & Moran, W. C. (2000). Caprolactam. In Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry (Vol. 30, pp. 1–31). Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/14356007.a05_031.pub3

Tsangas, M., Papamichael, I., Loizia, P., Voukkali, I., Salman Raza, N., Vincenzo, N., & Zorpas, A. A. (2024). Life cycle assessment of electricity generation by tire pyrolysis oil. Process Safety and Environmental Protection, 186, 376–387. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psep.2024.04.038

Wang, H., Wang, L., & Shahbazi, A. (2015). Life cycle assessment of fast pyrolysis of municipal solid waste in North Carolina of USA. Journal of Cleaner Production, 87, 511–519. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.09.011

Yadav, G., Singh, A., Dutta, A., Uekert, T., DesVeaux, J. S., Nicholson, S. R., Tan, E. C., Mukarakate, C., Schaidle, J. A., Wrasman, C. J., Carpenter, A. C., Baldwin, R. M., Román-Leshkov, Y., & Beckham, G. T. (2023). Techno-economic analysis and life cycle assessment for catalytic fast pyrolysis of mixed plastic waste. Energy & Environmental Science, 16(9), 3638–3653. https://doi.org/10.1039/D3EE00749A

Zeb, W., Roosen, M., Knockaert, P., Janssens, S., Withoeck, D., Kusenberg, M., Hogie, J., Billen, P., Tavernier, S., van Geem, K. M., & Meester, S. de (2023). Purification and characterisation of post-consumer plastic pyrolysis oil fractionated by vacuum distillation. Journal of Cleaner Production, 416, 137881. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.137881

Zeller, M., Netsch, N., Richter, F., Leibold, H., & Stapf, D. (2021). Chemical Recycling of Mixed Plastic Wastes by Pyrolysis – Pilot Scale Investigations. Chemie Ingenieur Technik, 93(11), 1763–1770. https://doi.org/10.1002/cite.202100102